The Legal Research 2026 abstracts and topics featured below are the scholarly work of the Juris Doctor students of the University of St. La Salle College of Law, prepared under the guidance of Professor Jocelle Batapa-Sigue. The full research work which will be released soon reflect the students’ engagement with pressing legal, social, institutional, economic, technological, and governance issues affecting the Philippines and the broader legal landscape. Through their work, the students examine law not only as a body of rules, but as a living instrument for justice, accountability, reform, innovation, and public service. Together, these studies showcase the depth, diversity, and relevance of legal research in shaping future lawyers who are critical thinkers, ethical advocates, and responsive leaders for 2026 and beyond.

1. A Legal Research on the Legal Sufficiency of Existing Philippine Laws on Deepfakes and Identity Theft

Researchers: Abigail Sacayle and Leo Rafael Salo

The rapid evolution of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has ushered in the era of “deepfakes” highly sophisticated synthetic media where a person’s likeness, voice, or image is replaced with someone else’s. While technology facilitates innovation, it simultaneously weaponizes digital identity, enabling unprecedented levels of fraud, disinformation, and reputational destruction. In the Philippine context, the ease of manipulating digital personas poses a significant threat to the sanctity of individual identity and the integrity of digital transactions.

This research addresses the urgent question of whether the current Philippine legal framework largely drafted before the proliferation of generative AI is robust enough to penalize these specific technological transgressions or if the legal system is currently operating within a vacuum of enforcement.

The main objective of this research is to determine whether current Philippine laws adequately address deepfakes and identity theft. It aims to identify the laws that may apply to these acts, assess their effectiveness, and determine whether there are gaps in legal protection.

The study also seeks to evaluate whether existing remedies are enough to protect individuals or if further legal development is needed. Furthermore, the research seeks to pinpoint critical gaps in legal protection, particularly regarding evidentiary hurdles and the lack of AI-specific disclosure requirements, to evaluate whether existing remedies are enough to protect individuals or if the rapid evolution of generative technology necessitates a comprehensive legislative overhaul or the enactment of a dedicated “Digital Identity Protection Act” to safeguard Filipino citizens.

This research employs a doctrinal approach, focusing on a qualitative analysis of primary and secondary legal sources. The study involves a rigorous review of Philippine statutes, including the Electronic Commerce Act (R.A. 8792) and various implementing rules and regulations. Furthermore, the researcher will examine jurisprudence from the Supreme Court of the Philippines regarding identity theft and cyber-libel to determine how judicial interpretation has evolved alongside technological shifts. By synthesizing these legal materials, the study will contrast the “letter of the law” with the “reality of technology,” ultimately providing a comprehensive assessment of the current legal protections available to Filipino citizens against the specific harms of AI-driven identity manipulation

2. Legal effects of the recognition of same-sex marriages in the Philippines

Researchers: Alanah Rose C. Barba and Mikhael Raymund F. Zamora

This study examines the legal effects of the recognition of same‑sex marriages in the Philippines, a jurisdiction where statutory law has historically defined marriage strictly as a union between a man and a woman. The research problem arises from the interplay between constitutional guarantees of equality and dignity on one hand, and the evolving interpretation of the Family Code. The inclusion of same-sex couples within the ambit of the law carries profound consequences, extending rights and protections long reserved for heterosexual spouses. The study seeks to understand how recognition impacts inheritance, property regimes, parental authority, criminal imputability, and taxation, while also exploring the broader implications for human rights and social justice.

The main objective of the study is to evaluate the socio‑legal consequences of inclusion of same-sex couples in practical areas of law. In pursuit of this objective, the study aims to compare and contrast constitutional and statutory provisions governing marriage in the Philippines with those of jurisdictions that have legalized same-sex marriages in terms of civil, criminal, and taxation laws. The analysis may likewise contribute to ongoing debates on marriage equality and to underscore the necessity of legislative and judicial action.

The methodology combines doctrinal legal analysis with comparative and socio‑legal approaches. Doctrinal analysis entails a close reading of constitutional provisions, statutory texts, and relevant case law to determine the current legal framework and its potential for expansion. Comparative analysis examines how other jurisdictions, particularly Taiwan and selected Western countries, have recognized same‑sex marriage and the legal transformations that ensued. Socio‑legal perspectives are incorporated through secondary data, including reports and scholarly studies to capture the lived experiences of same-sex couples.

3. Digital vigilantism, doxxing, online naming-and-shaming, and online privacy violations

Researchers: Arianne Mica G. Echauz and Ched Valerie C. Alcazaren

The rapid expansion of social media usage has transformed the manner in which individuals participate in public discourse, accountability, and the dissemination of information. In the Philippines, this development has contributed to the rise of digital vigilantism, particularly through practices such as doxxing and online naming-and-shaming campaigns. Despite the increasing prevalence of these acts, Philippine laws and jurisprudence remain inadequately equipped to address contemporary forms of online privacy violations, creating significant legal ambiguities regarding the regulation of unauthorized online disclosures of personal and private data.

This study seeks to examine the gaps in existing Philippine laws and jurisprudence concerning digital vigilantism involving the unauthorized disclosure of personal information on social media platforms. Specifically, the research analyzes the limitations of current legal frameworks, including the Data Privacy Act of 2012 and the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, in addressing doxxing and coordinated online harassment as distinct forms of digital harm. The study likewise evaluates relevant jurisprudence and proposes possible legal and policy reforms responsive to emerging social media-driven privacy violations.

The study employs a doctrinal legal research methodology through the analysis and interpretation of statutes, jurisprudence, legal principles, legislative measures, and relevant legal commentaries relating to privacy rights, online conduct, and digital governance. Primary legal sources include Philippine laws, Supreme Court decisions, and proposed legislative measures concerning online harassment and data privacy. Secondary sources such as journal articles, policy papers, and interdisciplinary literature on digital vigilantism and doxxing are likewise utilized to contextualize the issue and supplement the limited Philippine jurisprudence directly addressing the phenomenon.

The study concludes that the absence of a specific legal framework governing digital vigilantism and doxxing has resulted in fragmented legal protections, procedural limitations, and inconsistent accountability for online privacy violations. Consequently, the research recommends the enactment of comprehensive anti-doxxing legislation, the refinement of jurisprudential standards on digital privacy, and the strengthening of digital literacy and regulatory mechanisms to address modern forms of coordinated online harassment.

4. The gap between the rights and protections stipulated by the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997 and their actual implementation in ancestral domains

Researchers: Athaliah Karylle Juanillo and Maorin Joy Aguilar

This paper critically examines the persistent gap between the rights and protections stipulated by the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997 (Republic Act No. 8371) and their actual implementation in ancestral domains in the Philippines. Numerous indigenous communities continue to face illegal resource extractions, administrative hurdles in securing land titles, and procedural violations in consultation matters, despite the enactment of RA 8371 to safeguard community well-being, ensure ancestral land rights, and uphold self-determination. These differences highlight important concerns about the effectiveness of the law and the barriers hindering its full enforcement. Focusing on land tenure security, the Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) process, and jurisdictional safeguards, the research seeks to identify and analyze the key legal and administrative obstacles hindering the implementation of RA 8371.

Along with examining secondary literature, policy documents, and comparative international standards, the research employs a doctrinal legal analysis to thoroughly investigate the statutory provisions and key Supreme Court decisions interpreting the IPRA. Significant and supportive examples are analyzed to illustrate the benefits and drawbacks of the current enforcement methods. Moreover, the study includes policy assessment and factual information to provide a complete overview of the challenges faced by indigenous cultural groups. The study provides thorough suggestions for reforms in legislation, judiciary, and administration, intending to close the divide between the IPRA’s commitments and the actual experiences of Filipino indigenous communities, as well as to promote the wider objectives of environmental integrity and social equity in the Philippines.

5. Institutional and Procedural Issues in the Katarungang Pambarangay System Under Republic Act No. 7160: An Analysis Of Legal Competence, Mandatory Conciliation, and Access to Justice

Researcher: Caiper Bantolinao

6. Informed consent and the role of nurses in safeguarding patient understanding and patient rights

Researchers: Carlo Parreño and Laica Damasco

Informed consent is a fundamental requirement in healthcare, grounded in the patient’s right to autonomy and self-determination. While physicians are often seen as primarily responsible for obtaining consent, nurses play a crucial yet sometimes overlooked role in ensuring that the process is meaningful and legally sound. This research examines how nurses contribute to the legal aspects of informed consent, particularly in bridging communication gaps between patients and physicians, safeguarding patient understanding, and protecting patient rights. Given the increasing complexity of medical procedures and the growing emphasis on patient-centered care, clarifying the nurse’s role in this area has significant implications for both legal accountability and quality of care.

The primary objective of this study is to analyze the extent of nurses’ responsibilities in the informed consent process and to determine how their actions may carry legal consequences. It seeks to explore whether nurses merely witness consent or actively participate in ensuring that it is informed, voluntary, and comprehended by the patient. Additionally, the research aims to assess how legal standards, hospital policies, and ethical duties intersect in shaping nursing practice. By doing so, it highlights areas where nurses may be exposed to liability, as well as opportunities where their involvement strengthens compliance with legal and ethical requirements.

 This research adopts a doctrinal approach, examining relevant case law, statutory provisions, and legal commentaries that define informed consent and healthcare responsibilities. It also incorporates a comparative perspective by considering how different jurisdictions recognize and regulate the role of nurses in this process. Through this analysis, the study finds that nurses are not merely passive participants but act as patient advocates who ensure clarity, voluntariness, and proper documentation. Their role often involves reinforcing explanations, identifying patient confusion or hesitation, and communicating these concerns to the physician. Ultimately, recognizing the legal significance of nurses’ contributions promotes better healthcare outcomes and reduces the risk of disputes arising from inadequate consent.

7. The Anti-Hospital Deposit Law and the legality of requiring financial deposits prior to emergency medical treatment

Researcher: Charity Joy Sampane

The practice of medical facilities requiring financial deposits prior to administering emergency medical treatment presents a significant legal issue concerning the clarity and enforceability of Republic Act No. 10932, otherwise known as the Anti-Hospital Deposit Law. Despite its intent to prioritize the preservation of human life over financial considerations, ambiguities in its statutory language and implementing framework may undermine its effectiveness as a binding legal deterrent, thereby raising concerns within both legal scholarship and public health policy, particularly in relation to equitable access to urgent medical care and the State’s duty to safeguard the right to health.

This research aims to evaluate the legal sufficiency of the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of R.A. 10932 by determining whether its key definitions, particularly “emergency” and “serious case,” provide sufficient objective clarity to limit the discretionary power of hospital administrators and prevent inconsistent application in practice. It further seeks to examine the structure of the law’s tiered penalty system to assess whether liability is properly allocated among responsible actors within a hospital’s hierarchy, and to propose targeted legislative or administrative reforms that will enhance enforcement, reduce interpretative gaps, and promote greater institutional accountability.

The methodology employed in this study is strictly doctrinal, grounded in the systematic analysis of statutes and relevant jurisprudence to assess the coherence and enforceability of R.A. 10932 and its IRR within the broader framework of the Philippine health and constitutional law. The findings indicate that existing definitional ambiguities, coupled with gaps in the allocation of liability and enforcement procedures, may permit discretionary interpretation and uneven compliance among medical institutions, thereby weakening the law’s deterrent effect and undermining its protective purpose. Consequently, the study underscores the need for statutory refinement, clearer administrative guidelines, and more coherent enforcement mechanisms to ensure uniform application, enhance regulatory efficiency, and strengthen the protection of patients’ rights in emergency medical situations, ultimately contributing to a more responsive and accountable healthcare system.

8. Saving Money or Losing Jobs? “The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Call Centers, Employment, and the Human Touch”

Researcher: Charry Jane S. Gariando

This study examines whether the increasing use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the Philippine Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry can lawfully justify the replacement of human workers under existing labor and constitutional protections. As AI-driven systems continue to transform service delivery, a clear legal tension arises between corporate efficiency and the constitutional guarantee of security of tenure under Article XIII, Section 3 of the 1987 Constitution. This issue is not merely technological but also legal and social in nature. Given the BPO sector’s role as a major source of employment, the growing reliance on automation raises concerns on whether technological advancement may undermine labor rights and the government’s duty to protect workers, especially in an economy where job stability remains crucial and opportunities are not always easily replaced.

The primary objective of this research is to determine whether AI-driven employee displacement falls within the authorized causes for termination under Article 298 of the Labor Code, particularly redundancy and the installation of labor-saving devices. It also examines whether the “human touch” in service delivery has legal relevance, especially in ensuring data privacy, accountability, and ethical consumer relations. While businesses are entitled to pursue efficiency and innovation, such prerogative is not absolute and must still be exercised in good faith and with respect for labor standards.

The study also aims to propose legislative and administrative reforms that can address gaps in the current legal framework and ensure that the integration of AI remains consistent with labor protection, fairness, and constitutional safeguards. This research adopts a doctrinal approach through an analysis of the 1987 Constitution, the Labor Code of the Philippines, and relevant Supreme Court jurisprudence on management prerogative, redundancy, and good faith in termination. It also considers a comparative perspective by examining the European Union’s AI Act, particularly its provisions on high-risk AI systems and the requirement of human oversight. The findings show that while AI adoption may be justified under management prerogative, existing laws still require stronger safeguards to prevent arbitrary displacement of workers.

The study concludes that the complete removal of human participation raises legal and ethical concerns in terms of accountability, data protection, and consumer trust. Accordingly, it recommends that the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) and the National Privacy Commission (NPC) establish clear guidelines, including upskilling programs, transition support, and transparency measures, to ensure that technological progress remains aligned with the principles of social justice, fairness, and the protection of labor.

9. Rationalizing the tax burden: A legal analysis of multiple taxation and compliance requirements affecting small businesses in the Philippines

Researcher: Christian B. Villanueva

10. Women’s reproductive rights and the State’s authority to regulate matters of public health, morality, and welfare in the Philippines

Researcher: Christian Rusel C. Cuadernal

This paper examines the persistent legal tension between women’s reproductive rights and the State’s authority to regulate matters of public health, morality, and welfare in the Philippines. Rooted in constitutional guarantees such as the right to life, liberty, health, and human dignity, reproductive rights raise complex questions when juxtaposed with state policies that impose restrictions on access to reproductive health services. The issue is particularly significant in the Philippine context, where legal frameworks are influenced not only by constitutional mandates but also by deeply embedded social, cultural, and religious considerations. As debates continue over reproductive health programs and limitations on certain medical procedures, the need to clarify the legal boundaries of state regulation becomes increasingly important.

11. The Philippine Public Utility Vehicle (PUV) Modernization Program and the governance dilemma of road safety, emissions reduction, and livelihood displacement

Researcher: John Andre Dornig

The Philippine Public Utility Vehicle (PUV) Modernization Program presents a governance dilemma: upgrading an aging jeepney fleet to improve road safety and reduce emissions while avoiding livelihood displacement among hundreds of thousands of drivers and small operators. Jeepneys remain integral to daily mobility, yet are widely associated with mechanical unreliability and pollution burdens that affect commuters and public health. Modernization is thus framed as a public interest intervention, but it raises constitutional concerns under social justice commitments and the State’s duty to afford full protection to labor.

This study undertakes a doctrinal assessment of the legal foundations and rights-compatibility of the modernization framework, focusing on the Department of Transportation’s 2017 modernization order and related franchising and route rationalization mechanisms, alongside proposed “just and humane” modernization legislation. It interrogates whether key tools—consolidation into cooperatives or corporations, fleet-based participation requirements, subsidy design, and reliance on long-term financing—can satisfy substantive due process and equality norms while remaining consistent with constitutional social justice and labor-protection values.

The study also evaluates whether the program’s design provides meaningful transition pathways for affected drivers, including retraining, alternative work opportunities, and route allocation rules that minimize exclusion.

The analysis situates these issues within recent Supreme Court treatment of petitions challenging the modernization order. The Court emphasized that claims that modernization is confiscatory, anti-poor, or livelihood-depriving are fact-intensive and require evidence; they are not resolved through bare assertions in direct petitions. It likewise underscored procedural rigor: associations must demonstrate authority to sue for identified members, and challenges involving factual determinations must generally be brought before lower courts consistent with the hierarchy of courts.

Finally, the study links modernization to the national electric mobility framework, which anticipates integrating EV deployment into PUV modernization and calls for a “just transition” supported by capacity-building for affected operators, drivers, and technicians. It proposes reforms centered on verifiable consultation, enforceable transition protections, calibrated phase-in timelines, and assistance mechanisms aligned with actual income and debt-servicing capacity.

12. Liability of e-commerce platforms for counterfeit goods sold by third-party vendors

Researchers: Ella Nicole C. Zaragosa and Camille C. Guro

The rapid growth of e-commerce in the Philippines raised a key legal issue on whether e-commerce platforms like Shopee and Lazada may be held liable for counterfeit goods sold by third-party vendors. As these digital marketplaces act as intermediaries between buyers and independent sellers, the application of existing laws becomes uncertain, raising concerns about the proper enforcement of the Consumer Protection Act, Intellectual Property Code, Electronic Commerce Act, and the Internet Transactions Act. The study aimed to examine the extent of the liability of e-commerce platforms under Philippine law. It specifically sought to determine whether existing legal frameworks sufficiently addressed platform responsibility, and whether there were potential gaps in the law that required clearer regulatory standards.

The researchers employed a doctrinal research methodology through the analysis of relevant statutes and jurisprudence on consumer protection, intellectual property, electronic commerce, and internet transactions.  Where local jurisprudence was limited, this study also made use of a comparative approach by considering persuasive foreign principles to support analysis.

The study found that while the Internet Transactions Act (ITA) of 2023 established subsidiary liability for platforms that failed to act expeditiously upon notice, significant gaps still exist. These include the absence of a contributory infringement cause of action for trademark infringement, a lack of a constructive knowledge standard, no seller-initiated counter-notice mechanism,  undefined takedown timelines, and no proactive monitoring obligations for repeat offenders. The study recommended extending contributory infringement to trademarks, adopting a constructive knowledge standard and seller-initiated counter-notice mechanism modeled after China’s E-Commerce Law, enhancing ITA enforcement, and increasing consumer awareness.

13. Cyberbullying and the point at which protected speech becomes a vehicle for harm

Researchers: Gianne Frances M. Jesena and Nessy Jovanah G. Bagnol

Cyberbullying exposes a critical fault line in modern constitutional law: the point at which protected speech becomes a vehicle for harm. In digital spaces defined by anonymity, permanence, and rapid amplification, expression no longer operates within traditional limits. Words do not simply offend. They accumulate, target, and injure. This paper advances the argument that the prevailing legal approach to cyberbullying remains conceptually underdeveloped, relying on analog doctrines that fail to capture the realities of online interaction. It asks a decisive question: when does digital speech lose constitutional protection and trigger legal accountability, and are existing legal standards equipped to answer this with clarity and consistency?

Focusing on the Philippine legal framework, this study critically examines statutes such as the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 and the Safe Spaces Act, alongside relevant jurisprudence, to assess whether current mechanisms effectively deter cyberbullying and provide adequate remedies for victims. It identifies persistent gaps in enforcement, including the absence of a precise statutory definition of cyberbullying, evidentiary difficulties in proving intent and harm, and the jurisdictional challenges posed by borderless digital platforms. These gaps, the paper argues, create a dual risk. They enable harmful conduct to evade sanction while simultaneously inviting overbroad interpretations that may chill legitimate expression. Using a doctrinal methodology, the research analyzes how courts distinguish between unprotected “true threats” and protected forms of speech such as satire, dissent, and hyperbolic online discourse. It demonstrates that existing legal tests, while functional in offline contexts, often produce inconsistent outcomes when applied to digital communication, where context collapses, and impact is magnified. In response, this paper proposes a calibrated legal framework grounded in three elements: demonstrable harm, targeted intent, and contextual amplification.

Ultimately, the study contends that free speech does not end at mere offensiveness, but at the point where expression inflicts measurable injury and undermines the rights of others. By articulating clearer thresholds for liability, this paper contributes a principled approach to regulating cyberbullying—one that strengthens victim protection without eroding the constitutional commitment to free expression in the digital age.

14. Infant misidentification as actionable medical negligence under Philippine civil law

Researchers: Glynis Amor C. Caduhada and Nicole Billanes

Although the Department of Health (DOH) has investigated only two high-profile, DNA-confirmed “switched at birth” cases in the Philippines, neonatal misidentification represents one of the gravest breaches of patient safety and family integrity. These incidents raise serious questions regarding hospital accountability, professional negligence, and the adequacy of institutional safeguards.

This study examines whether infant misidentification can be legally classified as actionable medical negligence under Philippine civil law. It evaluates traditional tort pillars alongside the evidentiary framework of res ipsa loquitur to anchor these errors within corporate and vicarious liability doctrines.

Utilizing a descriptive mixed-methods approach, this research gathered data from twenty-four purposively selected nurses and midwives from five public and private hospitals in Negros Occidental. Structured questionnaires were used to assess frontline awareness, existing identification procedures, and perceived causes of infant misidentification. The findings were then analyzed alongside relevant Philippine Supreme Court rulings and legal doctrines on corporate negligence, vicarious liability, and quasi-delict.

The study revealed significant institutional system defects. Frontline staff rely heavily on informal peer mentorship over structured training, and face chronic understaffing, which respondents universally identified as the primary driver of misidentification risks. Crucially, all of the respondents mistakenly believed civil liability rests solely on the frontline receiving nurse, contradicting established doctrines that recognize direct institutional liability.

This research argues that hospitals may be held civilly liable under Article 2176 of the Civil Code, allowing affected families to pursue damages without the burden of proving criminal intent. Ultimately, the study advocates for stricter Department of Health regulations mandating unified electronic or biometric newborn identification systems to strengthen patient safety and prevent future incidents.

15. LGU Liability for Environmental Degradation: A Legal Analysis of Duties under Philippine Environmental Laws

Researchers: Hanna Nicole Lucot and Jewel Rhay A. Tingson

This paper critically examines the extent of liability of Local Government Units (LGUs) for environmental degradation within their territorial jurisdiction, focusing on their specific duties under existing Philippine environmental laws. The alarming and increasing incidence of environmental harm across the archipelago, despite numerous legislative frameworks designed for protection, necessitates an in-depth analysis of the LGUs’ precise role and accountability. This research is imperative as LGUs, being at the forefront of local governance, are crucial in both policy implementation and environmental stewardship. The study’s primary aim is to meticulously define the scope of LGU environmental duties, identify potential gaps and weaknesses in current enforcement mechanisms, and subsequently propose viable legislative and policy reforms designed to strengthen LGU accountability in environmental protection. A significant component of this analysis will be a particular focus on the implementation of these policies and the practical challenges faced by Bacolod City, offering a concrete case study.

Employing a doctrinal research approach, this study involves a comprehensive and systematic analysis of relevant Philippine environmental statutes, prevailing jurisprudence, and pertinent administrative regulations issued by various national bodies. It will specifically examine foundational laws such as the Local Government Code of 1991, which devolves significant environmental functions to LGUs, and the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, which assigns specific roles in waste management. These national mandates will be analyzed to ascertain the precise responsibilities imposed upon LGUs. Furthermore, the study will delve into the specifics of environmental ordinances and programs enacted in Bacolod City, including its overarching Environment Code (City Ordinance No. 313), the innovative “Zero Waste Zone” initiative (City Ordinance No. 258), and ongoing efforts in solid waste management and e-waste regulation. This detailed local examination will serve to illustrate the practical applications, successes, and inherent challenges of LGU environmental governance. This paper posits that despite being vested with significant environmental management powers and the recent adoption of progressive local ordinances, LGU liability for degradation frequently remains undefined or unenforced due to a confluence of legal ambiguities, resource constraints, and practical implementation hurdles.

The anticipated findings of this comprehensive analysis will distinctly underscore the urgent need for a clearer, more precise delineation of LGU environmental liability. This clarity is crucial for emphasizing the importance of proactive compliance, fostering greater transparency, and ensuring stricter accountability measures across all levels of local government. This approach will encompass specific legislative amendments at both national and local levels, enhanced capacity building programs for LGU officials and personnel, and improved inter-agency coordination among various environmental bodies. The ultimate goal is to effectively combat and reverse environmental degradation at the local level, drawing vital lessons and best practices from the unique experiences and existing policy frameworks implemented in Bacolod City.

16. Red-Tagging as a Justiciable Threat: A Doctrinal Analysis of the Writ of Amparo in Protecting the Right to Life, Liberty, and Security Under A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC

Researchers: Hanna Roshen S. Jiloma and Calixto Galido III

Red-tagging, the public labeling of individuals or organizations as communists, terrorists, or enemies of the state without due process, has escalated in the Philippines, threatening constitutional rights, democratic freedoms, and social cohesion. This practice spreads fear, discourages civic engagement, and often precedes violence, enforced disappearances, and extrajudicial killings. By directly endangering life, liberty, and security, red-tagging exposes gaps in legal protection and challenges the judiciary’s ability to safeguard citizens. Beyond physical harm, it imposes psychological and social burdens, creating an environment of intimidation that silences participation in democratic processes. Understanding both the legal and societal dimensions of red-tagging is critical to ensuring that individuals can exercise their rights without fear of persecution or reprisal.

This study aims to examine whether red-tagging constitutes a justiciable threat under Philippine law and whether the writ of amparo can provide effective protection to victims. Its objectives are threefold: first, to analyze how red-tagging threatens life, liberty, and security, including its psychological, social, and political effects; second, to evaluate the writ of amparo’s capacity to prevent harm, secure remedies, and provide timely protection; and third, to assess how judicial interventions can uphold democratic freedoms and strengthen accountability. Addressing these objectives clarifies the scope of legal safeguards, highlights the judiciary’s evolving role, and enhances understanding of how courts can respond to contemporary human rights challenges in a democratic society. The study employs doctrinal legal research, reviewing constitutional provisions, jurisprudence, and procedural rules governing the writ of amparo. Red-tagging is treated as both psychological intimidation and a precursor to physical harm, framing it as an actionable threat under the law. Court responses to amparo petitions including standards of proof, procedural requirements, and available remedies are analyzed to determine whether the writ provides timely and effective protection. Findings indicate that recognizing red-tagging as an actionable threat empowers courts to defend life, liberty, and security, strengthens judicial accountability, and reinforces democratic governance. By demonstrating how legal mechanisms can address modern human rights challenges, this study underscores the crucial role of the judiciary in protecting citizens and preserving democratic freedoms.

17. Algorithmic Accountability: Reconciling the Use of Generative AI in Legal Pleadings with the Lawyer’s Duty of Candor under the Code of Professional Responsibility and Accountability

Researchers: Ijssel Dumancas and Japhet Patriz B. Antonio

The rapid evolution of Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) presents a transformative shift in legal practice, yet it simultaneously challenges the foundational ethical pillars of the legal profession. This research explores the critical intersection between AI-assisted drafting and the lawyer’s Duty of Candor as mandated under the Code of Professional Responsibility and Accountability (CPRA). As legal practitioners increasingly integrate large language models to draft pleadings, motions, and other court submissions, a significant risk arises concerning the accuracy and integrity of judicial proceedings. The core problem addressed in this study is whether the use of AI in drafting legal documents can be classified as an Unauthorized Practice of Law (UPL) when the human-in-the-loop review is merely perfunctory.

The primary objective of this research is to define the threshold of substantive legal work versus mechanical automation. It aims to analyze if a lawyer’s failure to rigorously verify AI-generated content constitutes a breach of their professional duty to the court, the client, and the public. Furthermore, the study seeks to propose a framework for “meaningful human oversight” that ensures technological tools do not supersede the professional judgment required of a member of the Bar.

The methodology employed is primarily doctrinal, involving an intensive analysis of the CPRA, existing Philippine statutes, and Supreme Court circulars. This is supplemented by a comparative analysis, studying how international jurisdictions and foreign bar associations are regulating AI to prevent the erosion of ethical standards. By evaluating landmark cases and emerging global trends, this research identifies gaps in current Philippine judicial interpretations regarding digital accountability.

Ultimately, this study argues that while AI can enhance efficiency, the duty of candor is non-delegable. The findings suggest that perfunctory reviews which lead to the submission of erroneous or misleading AI-generated content should be treated with the same disciplinary gravity as traditional UPL or professional negligence. The research concludes by recommending specific legislative and judicial reforms, including the adoption of mandatory disclosure rules for AI-assisted filings, to safeguard the sanctity of the Philippine legal system in the age of automation.

18. Defining the Limits of Warrantless Digital Searches under the 1987 Philippine Constitution

Researcher: Jalin Reign P. Lim

Rapid technological growth has outpaced the development of Philippine privacy laws, creating a widening gap between the power of digital forensic tools and the protection of individual rights. This raises a pressing legal question: do existing judicial precedents sufficiently protect citizens from warrantless digital searches, or do they leave personal data exposed to potential state overreach? As everyday life becomes increasingly digitized, the need to clarify constitutional safeguards in the context of electronic searches and seizures becomes more urgent and relevant.

This study aims to assess whether current Philippine Supreme Court jurisprudence adequately safeguards the constitutional right to privacy in the face of advancing technology. It seeks to identify critical gaps in how courts interpret and apply legal standards to digital evidence and to propose a more responsive legal framework. Ultimately, the research intends to balance the legitimate interests of law enforcement with the fundamental rights of individuals by recommending clearer and stricter standards for electronic searches.

The research adopts a doctrinal approach and comprehensive jurisprudential evaluation , closely examining the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the Cybercrime Prevention Act, and relevant Supreme Court decisions to evaluate how electronic evidence is currently treated. It identifies weaknesses and inconsistencies in existing legal interpretations, particularly in situations involving warrantless digital searches. In addition, the study employs a comparative method by analyzing international legal developments, with a focus on the United States’ approach to “digital exceptionalism” as recognized in Riley v. California. By integrating insights from both domestic and foreign legal frameworks, the research builds a well-rounded argument for adopting higher evidentiary standards and more precise judicial guidelines to better protect digital privacy in the Philippines. It also considers emerging technologies such as cloud storage, encrypted messaging, and biometric data, emphasizing the need for adaptive legal principles that remain effective despite continuous and rapid technological change.

19. Judiciary Measures and Reserved Protections for Animals under the Animal Welfare Act

Researchers: John Mark Arado and Jeevic C. Magnabe

This study seeks to address legal issues arising from the Judiciary Measures and Reserved Protections for Animals under the Animal Welfare Act. According to statistics from the Philippine Animal Welfare Society, approximately 95% to 98% of animal welfare cases involving convictions in the Philippines remain ongoing. This research aims to analyze and uphold the protected measures provided in R.A. 10631 and effectively reduce cases of cruelty and maltreatment. Additionally, there is a vital need to enforce animal welfare laws through the coordinated efforts of the Committee on Animal Welfare and deputized enforcement officers from citizen groups.

Through a Doctrinal approach to case law, the Animal Welfare Act, and legal commentaries on the subject matter, we aim to highlight the gaps within the legislation and to inform the public about the measures and reserved rights as parties in interest to ensure these protections are upheld. The law not only punishes animal cruelty and maltreatment but also neglect. Under Republic Act No. 10631, any individual who owns or is responsible for an animal and abandons it without a justifiable reason, regardless of whether the desertion is permanent or temporary, is committing an act of maltreatment if they fail to ensure the animal’s continued care. This specific violation falls under Sections 7 and 9, which subject the offender to a graduated scale of imprisonment and fines based on the animal’s resulting physical or psychological state. Furthermore, the law defines abandonment as the total relinquishment of possession and claims to an animal with no intent to reclaim it; if such neglect leads to the animal’s death or unnecessary suffering, the responsible party will face the maximum legal penalty. However, studies show that penalties imposed in animal cruelty cases often fail to reflect the gravity of the harm inflicted. In many instances, offenders avoid imprisonment by simply paying fines.

While Philippine Laws provide a comprehensive framework of judicial protections and reserved rights specifically defining animal welfare as physical and psychological well-being and establishing graduated penalties for cruelty, the effectiveness of these laws depends on the rigorous implementation and enforcement by persons in authority such as PNP and NBI through the mandated deputization and training of enforcement officers empowered to rescue animals and to seize and arrest violators which are essential procedural powers under Section 10 of  Republic Act No. 10631.

20. Juvenile accountability, legal consent, and how age thresholds shape criminal responsibility and capacity to provide informed consent

Researchers: Jose Miguel C. Lupisan and Juan Carlo C. Lupisan

This study explores the juncture of juvenile accountability and legal consent, focusing on how age thresholds shape criminal responsibility and the capacity to provide informed consent. In the Philippines, statutory provisions establish clear age markers, yet misconceptions persist among minors who assume that being below eighteen exempts them from liability. This raises critical questions about whether current frameworks achieve a balanced approach between youth protection and accountability.

The research aims to evaluate Philippine statutes on juvenile justice and consent in light of global practices. It seeks to identify doctrinal gaps and assess whether age-based distinctions reflect evolving understandings of juvenile maturity and responsibility. Unlike prior scholarship that treats age thresholds as fixed, this study examines their developmental and cultural dimensions, situating Philippine law within broader debates on restorative justice and proportional accountability.

Using a doctrinal and comparative methodology, the study analyzes the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, relevant Supreme Court decisions, and policy documents, alongside international conventions and comparative models from jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom and Japan. Preliminary findings suggest that while Philippine law provides structured safeguards, rigid thresholds may overlook developmental differences and the need for restorative approaches.

The study ultimately contributes to discourse on juvenile justice by emphasizing the importance of harmonizing Philippine law with global standards while preserving constitutional and cultural contexts. Its findings aim to inform legislative reform, judicial interpretation, and policy development.

21. Hazardous underage labor in the Philippine sugarcane industry, particularly within the Negros Island Region

Researchers: Justin Andrei Tanilon and Angie Mambalos

Hazardous underage labor remains a pervasive and systemic reality in the Philippine sugarcane industry, particularly within the Negros Island Region. The Philippines continues to miss  international targets for eradicating child labor primarily due to profound structural deficiencies within its agricultural labor laws. This doctrinal and empirical legal study examines the within existing statutory frameworks, specifically Republic Act No. 9231 and the Labor Code of the Philippines, that seeks to protect vulnerable minors operating within the informal agricultural economy of Sugarlandia. The exploitation of the statutory familial assistance exception, the utilization of multi-tiered verbal subcontracts through the cabo system, and severe jurisdictional blockades allow corporate sugar mills and principal landholders to successfully shield themselves from civil and penal liability. This study evaluates these legislative gaps through an in-depth analysis using constitutional concepts. It assesses the Equal Protection Clause, the doctrine of parens patriae, and the police power of the State regarding agrarian regulation and social justice. The research demonstrates that current labor jurisprudence relies on a formalized urban employment paradigm that is entirely incompatible with the rural pakyaw wage structure.

To rectify this structural failure, the research proposes a legislative reform package drawing on comparative legal analyses of international supply chain accountability models. The proposed framework advocates for absolute joint and several liability across the agricultural supply chain and mandatory corporate human rights due diligence for sugar processing centrals. Furthermore, it integrates localized health and sanitation ordinances to combat environmental occupational hazards actively tracked by local disaster risk reduction offices. Shifting the legal burden of compliance from marginalized communities to the primary economic beneficiaries of the sugar trade represents the only viable path to genuine regulatory enforcement and the eradication of agrarian child exploitation.

22. Human-Centered Augmented Intelligence in the Philippine Judiciary: A Critical Analysis of A.M. No. 25-11-28-SC and the Constitutional Safeguards Against Algorithmic Bias in Judicial Decision-Making

Researcher: Kaila Janeena O. Agarrado

The Supreme Court of the Philippines recently promulgated A.M. No. 25-11-28-SC to establish a Governance Framework on the Use of Human-Centered Augmented Intelligence, advancing the modernization goals of the Strategic Plan for Judicial Innovations 2022–2027. However, integrating artificial intelligence into court operations triggers profound tension between operational efficiency and the constitutional guarantee that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.

The primary objective of this research is to critically analyze the framework’s core pillars of fairness, accountability, and transparency to determine if current safeguards adequately protect litigants from algorithmic bias and machine-generated pre-judgments. Additionally, the study proposes procedural reforms by evaluating the Philippine guidelines against international standards and foreign legal controversies surrounding automated justice.

This study employs a mixed doctrinal and comparative research approach. Doctrinally, the paper analyzes the due process clause of the 1987 Philippine Constitution alongside the specific administrative guidelines of A.M. No. 25-11-28-SC and the Strategic Plan for Judicial Innovations. Comparatively, the research draws critical insights from global artificial intelligence ethics guidelines established by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, as well as landmark foreign jurisprudence on closed-source algorithmic risk assessments.

23. Awareness and Effectiveness of Anti-Hazing Law Among College Students

Researchers: Karl Emmanuel Ealdama and Hilway Monteroso

Is the Anti-Hazing Act of 2018 effective in preventing hazing among organizations conducting initiation rites? The issue is significant as it involves the protection and the accountability of both educational institutions and student organizations.

This study examines the awareness and the effectiveness of the Anti-Hazing Law among college students, focusing on whether the law adequately addresses hazing incidents and promotes student safety.

This topic is important because hazing continues despite strict legal prohibitions. It is relevant to legal scholarship and policy as it evaluates whether the Anti-Hazing Act of 2018 effectively protects students and identifies gaps in its awareness and enforcement. The main goal of this research is to determine the awareness of college students regarding the effectiveness of RA 11053 or also known as “THE ANTI HAZING ACT OF 2018” on preventing hazing practices. Are they aware of the means and mechanism of the provision provided by the law as to the educational institutions and agencies as to their roles in regulating organization with initiation rites within their campus.  

This research aims to assess the extent of college students’ awareness of the Anti-Hazing Law and evaluate its effectiveness in preventing hazing-related activities. It seeks to determine whether students’ knowledge of legal provisions influences their attitudes and behavior toward hazing, and to identify gaps in the implementation and enforcement of the law. 

The study employs a mixed-method approach, combining doctrinal and empirical research methodologies. The doctrinal aspect involves the analysis of Republic Act No. 11053, or the Anti-Hazing Act of 2018, including its key provisions, penalties, and enforcement mechanisms.

The empirical component consists of survey data collected from college students to measure their level of awareness, perceptions of the law’s effectiveness, and experiences or observations related to hazing practices. The data are analyzed to identify patterns and discrepancies between legal intent and actual practice.

24. Constitutional qualifications for the presidency of the Philippines and their comparison with other democratic jurisdictions

Researcher: Kelly Greg C. Dalisay

This study examines the minimalist framework of constitutional qualifications for the presidency of the Philippines and evaluates it against the frameworks of other democratic jurisdictions. Article VII, Section 2 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution imposes only five eligibility requirements for presidential candidacy – natural-born citizenship, voter registration, literacy, a minimum age of forty years, and ten years of residency preceding the election – while deliberately omitting formal educational attainment, prior public service, and professional experience as qualifying criteria.

The central argument advanced in this paper is that the Philippine Constitution embodies a principled minimalist design that prioritizes popular sovereignty and democratic inclusivity over institutional gatekeeping, placing primary responsibility on the electorate to evaluate candidate fitness. This design, while defensible as a constitutional expression of anti-elitist values, generates an identifiable structural tension with the practical demands of effective executive governance. The study employs a doctrinal and comparative methodology, analyzing the constitutional text, relevant jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, and the qualification frameworks of the United States, France, and Brazil.

The paper finds that the Philippine minimalist model is among the most open of major democratic systems and that the doctrine of exhaustive enumeration, consistently affirmed by the Supreme Court, forecloses legislative additions to the constitutionally prescribed qualifications absent a formal constitutional amendment. On the normative question of reform, the study recommends against imposing educational or prior public-service requirements, given their exclusionary potential and the weak evidence linking them to improved governance outcomes. Instead, it advocates process-oriented electoral reforms that enhance the quality of democratic choice without restricting eligibility for public office.

25. The legal standard of insanity and the use of neuropsychological evidence in assessing criminal liability

Researchers: Kizia V. Candelario and Ian Gabriel Asuncion

The legal standard of insanity, defined as a total deprivation of intelligence, stems from a narrow perspective that fails to account for the dynamic and complex nature of human psychology. It reflects an all-or-nothing approach that overlooks the spectrum on which mental illness exists and disregards developments in contemporary psychological and neuroscientific understanding. In this regard, the growing intersection between neuroscience and law has introduced neuropsychological evidence as a potential tool for more accurately assessing criminal liability, particularly in understanding cognitive impairments, behavioral control, and decision-making processes.

However, in the Philippine legal system, courts primarily rely on traditional expert behavioral assessments and witness testimonies in evaluating claims of insanity. Murder cases, in particular, are adjudicated in a rigid manner, with intent and mental capacity treated as crucial elements in determining criminal responsibility. This approach often limits the consideration of scientific advancements that may provide a more nuanced and objective basis for evaluating the mental state of the accused. In this regard, neuropsychological evidence remains passive as an assistant in adjudicating murder cases, rather than being fully integrated into judicial reasoning.

This study explores the role of neuropsychological evidence in determining criminal liability, particularly in relation to the application of the Insanity Defense. It examines the extent to which such evidence is currently utilized and the challenges surrounding its admissibility and probative value. This research is significant in evaluating whether the use of neuropsychological evidence may impose a higher burden of proof in invoking the insanity defense, while also offering insights that may contribute to the development of more informed legal standards, a more precise evaluation of criminal liability, and potential reforms in evidentiary rules within the Philippine justice system.

26. The Thin Line Between Digital Freedom and Cyber Libel

Researchers: Kleah Yssabelle S. Baya and Rianne V. Noble

This research aims to address the intensifying conflict between the constitutional guarantee of freedom of speech and the duty of the state to protect an individual’s reputation within the digital sphere. Social media has opened a gateway for a new era of communication and freedom of expression, making a profound transformation in how people interact, share ideas, and even engage in public discourse. However, with this revolution comes the simultaneous growth of legal risks, as the line separating the right to freedom of expression and protection of one’s reputation becomes increasingly blurred.

The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the constitutional boundaries of cyber libel and to determine whether these measures constitute an undue restriction on freedom of speech. Specifically, this research aims to analyze the substantial distinctions in various cases decided by the judiciary, such as the expansive reach of social media platforms, the unparalleled speed of information dissemination, and the heightened accessibility of digital content.  It further seeks to evaluate whether these justifications remain valid in light of evolving digital literacy, technological sophistication, and the growing awareness of citizens regarding their online rights and responsibilities.

This study uses a doctrinal research methodology, which involves a comprehensive analysis of legal commentaries, jurisprudence, and statutes. Central to the discussion is the  Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 and its interplay with the Revised Penal Code. It also further examines notable landmark cases in which the Supreme Court clearly distinguishes between protected speech and cyber libel. By synthesizing these legal precedents, the study scrutinizes the shifting prescriptive periods and the evolving standards for digital evidence. To conclude, this study provides a critical evaluation of the existing Philippine legal structure to determine whether it effectively protects digital freedom of expression or whether the current balance has tilted toward police power and censorship. Such an imbalance may risk undermining the constitutional guarantees intended to safeguard free speech in the modern era.

27. Bank secrecy laws, banking confidentiality, and accountability of public officers in the Philippines

Researchers: Kyle Joshua L. Ramos

The constitutional principle that public office is a public trust requires public officials to remain accountable, transparent, and responsible in the exercise of governmental authority. Despite constitutional safeguards and laws promoting integrity in public service, corruption, unexplained wealth, and misuse of public funds continue to challenge governance in the Philippines. One of the recurring legal concerns in accountability investigations is the confidentiality of financial records under Republic Act No. 1405 or the Bank Secrecy Law and Republic Act No. 6426 or the Foreign Currency Deposit Act. Although these laws were enacted to strengthen confidence in the banking system, encourage savings, and protect financial privacy, their broad confidentiality provisions may also restrict the State’s ability to investigate suspicious financial activity involving public officials. This issue has become particularly visible in controversies involving former President Joseph Estrada, former Chief Justice Renato Corona, the PDAF or Pork Barrel controversy, and more recent allegations involving anomalous flood control projects, where questions of financial secrecy, unexplained wealth, and accountability became matters of public concern.

This study aims to examine the effects of bank secrecy laws and other banking confidentiality provisions on the accountability of public officers in the Philippines. Specifically, it seeks to determine whether existing legal protections on bank deposits remain consistent with the constitutional demand for transparency and accountability in public office. The study further analyzes how banking confidentiality affects investigation, oversight, and enforcement mechanisms under existing anti-corruption laws and evaluates whether current legal safeguards sufficiently balance financial privacy with the public interest in detecting graft, bribery, plunder, procurement-related irregularities, and unexplained wealth. It likewise explores possible legal and institutional reforms that may strengthen accountability while preserving legitimate banking interests.

This research employs a doctrinal legal research methodology through the analysis of constitutional provisions, statutes, jurisprudence, administrative issuances, and legal commentaries concerning bank secrecy, public accountability, and anti-corruption laws. It examines relevant legal controversies and judicial decisions to understand how banking confidentiality affects investigations involving public officials and public funds. The study finds that while financial privacy serves important constitutional and economic purposes, excessive restrictions on access to financial records may delay or weaken efforts to detect corruption at an early stage, often making accountability mechanisms reactive rather than preventive. In response, the study proposes reforms aimed at improving transparency through narrowly tailored accountability exceptions, stronger institutional coordination, more responsive monitoring systems, and lawful safeguards for financial scrutiny involving public officials and persons directly engaged in government transactions.

28. Effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in juvenile detention centers in reducing recidivism among youth offenders

Researchers: Larmy-Art A. Cornelio and Christian M. Sombero

This study examines the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in juvenile detention centers in reducing recidivism among youth offenders. As juvenile justice systems shift from punitive to restorative approaches, policymakers and legal scholars increasingly prioritize interventions that effectively prevent re-offending. Despite this shift, many jurisdictions continue to experience high rates of juvenile recidivism, which raises concerns about the adequacy, design, and implementation of existing correctional and rehabilitative strategies. This research evaluates the relationship between specific rehabilitation programs, such as vocational skills training, psychological counseling, and formal education, and recidivism outcomes among detained youth. It also analyzes how factors such as age, offense type, and duration of program participation influence the effectiveness of these interventions.

The findings show that rehabilitation programs incorporating individualized treatment plans, ongoing psychological counseling, and access to education and vocational training significantly reduce recidivism rates. Programs that emphasize cognitive-behavioral therapy and encourage family involvement produce particularly strong outcomes. The results also reveal that younger offenders and those who participate in longer-duration interventions demonstrate more sustained behavioral improvements. In contrast, short-term or generalized programs that lack individualized focus and post-release support produce limited results. The study also finds that the type of offense influences outcomes, as non-violent offenders respond more positively to rehabilitative measures than those involved in serious or repeat violent crimes.

The study uses a mixed-methods approach by combining doctrinal legal analysis with an empirical review of existing studies, government reports, and comparative practices across jurisdictions. It further examines relevant statutes, juvenile justice policies, and selected case law to determine how legal frameworks support or hinder the achievement of rehabilitative goals. The study concludes that well-structured and consistently implemented rehabilitation programs can substantially reduce juvenile re-offending. It recommends legal and policy reforms that institutionalize evidence-based practices, ensure adequate funding, and require comprehensive post-release support systems. By identifying key success factors and best practices, this research contributes to the development of a more responsive and rehabilitative juvenile justice system that promotes public safety and supports the successful reintegration of youth offenders into society.

29. Evolving Gender Norms: Violence Against Men in Intimate Relationships and the Lack of Legal Safeguards in the Philippines

Researchers: Michelle B. Reyes

The Philippine country is a melting pot of culture, values, and traditions. Its legal system embodies a unique blend of Spanish and American influences, each contributing to a system that seeks harmony between tradition and progress. However, as the nation evolved away from strictly patriarchal structures, a critical legal issue emerged: the categorical exclusion of men from the specialized legal protections such as Republic Act No. 9262 (The Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004). This topic is of paramount relevance in current legal scholarship as it addresses the “statutory absence” of safeguards for men facing experiencing violence in intimate relationships, leaving male victims with no recourse for specialized remedies such as Barangay, Temporary, or Permanent Protection Orders to secure their safety.

The primary objective of this study is to establish the legal necessity for a gender-neutral framework that provides all victims of intimate partner violence, regardless of gender, access to the same summary protective mechanisms currently reserved for women and children. The study specifically aims to analyze the constitutional implications of this exclusion under the Equal Protection Clause of the 1987 Constitution. Furthermore, it re-evaluates the landmark case of Garcia v. Drilon to determine if the “substantial distinctions” once used to justify gender-exclusive protection remain valid under modern international human rights standards and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

This study utilizes a doctrinal approach involving a rigorous analysis of Philippine statutes, the Revised Penal Code and RA 9262, to identify procedural limitations that hinder male victims from seeking justice. While the RPC provides gender-neutral avenues for filing physical injury cases, it lacks the comprehensive, immediate safety measures, such as exclusion of the abuser from the residence found in RA 9262. Furthermore, it employs a comparative methodology by examining the inclusive domestic violence laws of jurisdictions such as Indonesia and Hong Kong to provide a benchmark for legislative reform in the Philippines through measures like House Bill No. 4888.

30. The “sufficiency in substance” requirement in Philippine impeachment proceedings

Researcher: Nur-Aisa Yaeso

The impeachment power, as enshrined in Article XI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, serves as the ultimate clutch of the democratic accountability, designed to remove the highest officials for the gravest of offenses, however, the modern application of this power has shifted from a rare constitutional safeguard to a recurring instrument of political warfare. At the center of this transition lies the procedural gatekeeper known as the “sufficiency in substance” requirement wherein under the current House Rules of Procedure, an impeachment complaint must be deemed sufficient in substance before it can proceed to a determination of probable cause, yet, the lack of precise, objective definition for “substance” in both the Constitution and internal legislative rules has granted the House Committee on Justice nearly unfettered discretion.

This research investigates the legal and political dimensions of this requirement, examining the vagueness of the “sufficiency in substance” standard which may permit weaponization of the process, either by fast-tracking politically motivated complaints against adversaries or by summarily dismissing well-founded complaints against political allies. The study shows how this procedural stage may no longer be a mere legal filter but a political shield, effectively insulating certain officials from accountability while leaving others vulnerable to the whims of the prevailing parliamentary majority for which the primary objective of this study is to evaluate the existing standards, or lack thereof, governing “sufficiency in substance” in Philippine impeachment proceedings, specifically, it aims to determine whether this requirement, as currently applied, conforms, or otherwise, to the principles of due process and the spirit of the 1987 Constitution.

The methodology employed is primarily doctrinal, involving a comprehensive analysis of Article XI of the 1987 Constitution, the prevailing House Rules of Procedure in Impeachment, landmark Supreme Court jurisprudence, and further incorporates a case study analysis of recent impeachment attempts in 2025 and 2026, comparing the treatment of complaints across different political factions. By identifying the procedural loopholes that allow for the weaponization of impeachment, this paper underscores the urgent need for reform. The implications of this study suggest that without a clearer, more objective set of criteria for “sufficiency in substance,” the impeachment process risks complete trivialization, ultimately undermining the rule of law and the stability of the Philippine presidential system.

31. Value-Added Tax, progressive taxation, and social justice under the 1987 Constitution

Researcher: Patricia A. Caburog

The Value-Added Tax (VAT) is one of the Philippine government’s primary sources of revenue and is widely justified as an efficient means of funding public services, infrastructure, and social development programs. However, its continued reliance raises an important constitutional issue: whether a tax uniformly imposed on the consumption of goods and services is consistent with the 1987 Constitution’s mandate that Congress “shall evolve a progressive system of taxation” and the State’s commitment to social justice. This study examines the gap between the constitutional principle of tax progressivity and the regressive effects of VAT in practice, particularly on low-income and marginalized sectors that spend most of their income on basic necessities and essential services. Although VAT applies equally to all consumers, its economic burden falls more heavily on those with limited income, who bear a greater proportion of the tax relative to their earnings. Using a doctrinal legal research methodology, the study analyzes Article VI, Section 28(1) of the Constitution, the National Internal Revenue Code, legislative intent, relevant Supreme Court jurisprudence, and scholarly discussions on taxation and constitutional law. It also evaluates whether existing safeguards, such as exemptions, exclusions, and zero-rated transactions, adequately reduce the burden on economically disadvantaged groups. The study argues that while VAT may be constitutionally permissible as a revenue measure, its actual operation may undermine the Constitution’s goals of substantive equality, equitable wealth distribution, and protection of vulnerable sectors. Ultimately, the research contends that the constitutionality of taxation should be assessed not only by legislative design or fiscal efficiency, but also by its real effects on social and economic inequality, consistent with the Constitution’s vision of a just and equitable society.

32. Republic Act No. 12010 or the Anti-Financial Account Scamming Act (AFASA), warrantless temporary holding of funds, and constitutional rights

Researchers: Philip Jaime Servando and Ken Paolo Gilo

The increase in cybercrime incidents through the country’s financial system has prompted the government to enact Republic Act No. 12010, also known as the Anti-Financial Account Scamming Act (AFASA). This act represents a pivotal shift in the Philippine government’s strategy to combat the proliferation of cyber-fraud and money muling. The main objective of the act is the protection of the integrity of the financial system and thus, improve the confidence among its users; however, its enforcement mechanisms, specifically the warrantless temporary holding of funds and the broad investigative powers granted to the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP), raise urgent questions regarding their alignment with the 1987 Constitution and the Bill of Rights. This study is critical as it addresses the growing tension between the State’s duty to ensure financial security and the individual’s fundamental right to be secure in their property and privacy.

33. Effectiveness of the Probation System under the Probation Law of 1976 in reducing recidivism in the Philippines

Researcher: Psalm Jules D. Sabandal

This study examines the effectiveness of the Probation System under the Probation Law of 1976 in reducing recidivism in the Philippines. It focuses on whether probation, as a non-custodial and rehabilitative alternative to imprisonment, has succeeded in preventing repeat offenses and promoting the reintegration of offenders into society. The topic is important because recidivism remains a continuing concern in the criminal justice system, and the value of probation must be measured not only by its availability as a legal remedy but also by its actual impact on offender rehabilitation and public safety.

The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the extent to which the probation system fulfills its purpose of correcting behavior and lowering the likelihood of reoffending. Specifically, it seeks to determine whether the legal framework under the Probation Law of 1976 adequately supports rehabilitation, supervision, and community-based correction, and whether existing policies remain responsive to the realities of the Philippine penal system. The study also aims to identify legal and practical gaps that may weaken the system’s effectiveness and to propose reforms that may strengthen probation as a tool for crime reduction.

This research will use a doctrinal legal approach by examining the Probation Law of 1976, related statutes, implementing rules, and relevant jurisprudence. It will also review scholarly writings and policy materials to assess how probation has been understood and applied in the Philippine legal setting. Where appropriate, the study will compare Philippine probation practices with selected foreign jurisdictions to draw lessons that may improve local policy. Through this analysis, the paper argues that probation can be an effective correctional measure only when it is supported by consistent enforcement, adequate supervision, and a rehabilitation-oriented legal framework. The study concludes by recommending reforms that may enhance the system’s capacity to reduce recidivism and better serve the goals of criminal justice.

34. From Shoals to Sovereignty: The Fight for West Philippine Sea

Researcher: Roan E. Vargas

The core legal problem addressed in this research is the persistent enforcement gap between the definitive 2016 Arbitral Award and the operational reality of “aggressive and dangerous actions” within the Philippine Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Despite a landmark ruling affirming that the “nine-dash line” has no legal effect and that the Philippines exercises exclusive sovereign rights over its maritime features, the state continues to encounter “unlawful acts” by foreign maritime forces. These incidents—ranging from the deployment of fire-control radar and flares to dangerous maneuvers that violate the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea—constitute a direct challenge to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). This research is critical for legal scholarship and policy as it examines the erosion of the international rule of law when a state party dismisses a final and binding judicial award as “mere paper.”

The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the legal-institutional framework through which the Philippines asserts its sovereign rights amidst shifting maritime strategies. It aims to analyze the effectiveness of the National Maritime Council, reorganized under Executive Order No. 57, in synchronizing government agencies to achieve a “unified, coordinated, and effective governance framework” for maritime security. Furthermore, the study assesses how domestic statutes, specifically the Philippine Baselines Law (RA 9522) and the Philippine Constitution’s mandate to protect “marine wealth,” can be integrated with international law to strengthen “maritime domain awareness.” The research seeks to propose a strategic legal posture that bridges the divide between recognized doctrinal rights and the practical exercise of jurisdiction at sea.

The methodology for this study is primarily doctrinal, involving a rigorous analysis of UNCLOS, the 2016 Arbitral Award, and relevant domestic executive issuances. This approach is supplemented by a qualitative policy analysis that utilizes foreign and public policy literature to interpret how different administrations have framed the legal “policy image” of the West Philippine Sea. By examining the transition from “appeasement” policies to the “Comprehensive Archipelagic Defense Concept,” the research identifies the legal contradictions inherent in modern grey-zone tactics. Ultimately, this study implies that the survival of the UNCLOS-based maritime order depends on a state’s ability to operationalize its legal victories through robust institutional synchronization and a principled, lawful approach to national defense.

35. Social media pages of LGU officials, freedom of speech, legal boundaries, and ethical responsibilities of public officers

Researchers: Shyrine B. Ortiz and Ma. Riyan Kyle L. Golez

In recent years, social media platforms have become one of the primary channels for communication between public officials and their constituents, allowing them to have an efficient platform where they share updates, emergency announcements, policy information, and even their own personal opinions. This study examines how the social media pages (particularly, Facebook) of different local government unit (LGU) officials reflect the nature of their speech and reveal patterns thereof, especially during a time where the nature of these activities are scrutinized whether they fall within the scope of their constitutional rights to freedom of expression, the legal boundaries of their speech, and the ethical responsibilities that are inherent in their roles as public officers.

This study specifically aims to analyze how the constitutional guarantee of freedom of speech under Article III, Section 4 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution applies to the social media pages of LGU officials, particularly in distinguishing private expression from official government communication. It further seeks to determine the legal limits of such speech under Article XI, Section 1 and Republic Act no. 6713, and to assess the corresponding standards of responsibility and liability for officials’ online conduct, to clarify how public officials may engage online without compromising accountability, neutrality, and public interest.

Furthermore, this study employed a qualitative content analysis approach, utilizing an analytical framework anchored on relevant constitutional and administrative law principles to examine the Facebook posts of three LGU officials representing the barangay, city, and provincial levels. Posts published within a 30-day period were analyzed and classified as personal, official, or hybrid forms of speech, while recurring patterns in purpose, tone, and indicators of public function were identified. These patterns were then compared across the three levels of local government to assess potential legal and accountability concerns, as well as the broader implications of public officials’ digital communication and online conduct.

36. Regional distribution of Public Attorney’s Office offices and public attorneys and meaningful access to free legal assistance

Researchers: Sophie Rodrigazo

This paper examines whether the regional distribution of Public Attorney’s Office (PAO) offices and public attorneys in the Philippines satisfies the constitutional and statutory promise of meaningful access to free legal assistance. Although the right to counsel, due process, and equal protection are formally protected under Philippine law, these guarantees may lose practical force when indigent litigants, accused persons, and other qualified beneficiaries cannot physically or promptly reach legal aid services. Using a doctrinal legal research method, the study analyzes the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Republic Act No. 9406, PAO issuances and reports, relevant jurisprudence, and international legal aid standards, particularly the United Nations Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid in Criminal Justice Systems. The paper finds that the existing legal framework recognizes PAO as the principal state legal aid institution but does not clearly establish enforceable standards for equitable regional distribution, geographic accessibility, or resource allocation. This gap risks reducing legal aid from a substantive right into a formal institutional service. The paper recommends clearer statutory or policy standards for assessing regional legal aid coverage, including accessibility indicators, workload data, and mechanisms for prioritizing underserved, rural, remote, and disadvantaged areas.

37. Climate-induced mobility, overseas Filipino workers, and the Philippine export labour framework

Researcher: Glaziel Kae Go Tagamolila

The Philippine export labour framework rests on the assumption that outward migration is voluntary and driven by economic choice. That assumption is becoming harder to sustain. As climate risks intensify, migration for income-earning citizens is no longer purely economic; it is, as recent international studies suggest, a response to conditions that make staying untenable for many in climate-vulnerable states, including the Philippines. The distinction between choice and constraint begins to blur. This unsettles the legal basis for classifying Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) as purely economic migrants and raises questions about the State’s duty to ensure a stable and habitable environment for future generations. If the law remains static while environmental pressures deepen, the result may not only be continued labour outflow, but a gradual strain on a largely remittance-dependent economy.

This study revisits the legal framework governing outbound labour and asks whether its underlying assumptions still hold. It examines the continued use of the economic migrant classification in light of climate-induced mobility and considers whether a “circular resilience” approach may offer a more fitting lens for the Philippine context. In doing so, it looks at what is at stake in maintaining the current classification despite changing environmental pressures.

The study adopts a doctrinal approach. It analyzes the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 8042), as amended by Republic Act No. 10022, alongside the Climate Change Act of 2009 (Republic Act No. 9729), and relevant Supreme Court jurisprudence on environmental rights and labour protection. This is supplemented by a limited comparative review of Kiribati’s Migration with Dignity model and policy work from the Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Displacement data from the World Bank and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) are used to ground the legal analysis in current conditions. By bridging environmental law and labour migration policy, this paper identifies implications for the evolution of the Philippine legal system toward a more climate-responsive governance structure.

38. Reliability of power distribution by electrical utilities in Negros Occidental and its impact on consumer rights

Researchers: Ydsan Franz Palabrica Dongon

This study examines the legal framework governing the reliability of power distribution by electrical utilities in Negros Occidental and its impact on consumer rights. Frequent power interruptions and voltage fluctuations continue to affect households and businesses in the province, raising concerns on whether distribution utilities are meeting the standards required by law. Existing regulations, including Republic Act No. 9136 and policies issued by the Energy Regulatory Commission, establish obligations for utilities to provide reliable and adequate service. This situation raises the question of whether current practices of distribution utilities comply with these legal standards and adequately protect the rights of consumers.

The study aims to identify the legal and regulatory standards governing power distribution reliability and to assess the extent to which electrical utilities in Negros Occidental comply with these requirements. It also seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of existing regulatory and enforcement mechanisms in addressing consumer complaints related to service interruptions and poor power quality. Based on these findings, the research will examine possible improvements in regulatory oversight and consumer protection measures, focusing on practical and cost-efficient approaches that may be implemented within existing institutional frameworks.

This research adopts a mixed-method approach, combining doctrinal and empirical methods. The doctrinal aspect involves the review of relevant laws, regulations, and issuances, including those of the Energy Regulatory Commission, to establish the legal standards on reliability and service quality. The empirical aspect involves qualitative data gathered through semi-structured interviews with selected personnel from distribution utilities, regulatory bodies, and consumers within Negros Occidental, with the scope limited to ensure feasibility. The study is expected to show that while a regulatory framework exists, gaps in implementation and enforcement affect service reliability and consumer protection, and it aims to propose practical measures to improve compliance, strengthen accountability, and enhance the overall quality of power distribution services.

NOTE: All topics are subject to adjustments in final research work